Monday, September 30, 2019

Harrison Brothers Corporation Kwanghun Cheong Essay

1. Background Harrison Brothers Corporation (HBC) is traditional department store that extends business field from clothing to home furnishing and home items recently to become the leading chain of department stores in the Northeast. Today’s customers are quickly changing needs to have something for both value and specialization. In addition, competitors such as superstores and giant discounters are increasing. CEO of HBC clarified the company’s strategy; that is reposition of offering exciting brand names, excellent sales help, and frequent sales. Furthermore, CEO has been agonizing HR function since he felt the employee quality and performance would be important to get the strategic goal. 2. Problem Definition Main problem of HBC’s HR department is that organization model of HR department does not function as strategic business partner. In the short run, HBC does not keep a well-trained, highly motivated workers and there is a shortage of professional employees all the time. In the long run, the HR department does not contribute to achieving the company’s strategic goal. 3. Cause of Problem (Analysis) 1) Insufficiency of aggressive act to external environmental changes As competitors increase, the HR department has difficulty retaining competent employees. So, they spend most of time doing administrative role such as recruiting and training new employees. Even though sales employees are key to promote business, new employees who are wanting in ability are assigned to sales. â€Å"We get some employees who cannot effectively complete the cash register training. Our training tries to expose them to selling techniques and how to properly interact with customer† 2) Organization model of HR department which does not align with strategy Though the company is traditionally highly decentralized, HR functions are extremely centralized. So, there is a gap between the HR department and the other sales departments, and the HR department eventually cannot consider the business oriented strategy. Also, as independent HR department, there are 3 staffs except a trainer and a payroll clerk. So, they cannot deal with extension of  business because of increasing administrative job. 3) HR manager’s lack of strategic awareness Although HBC ask the HR manager to become a business partner, she focuses on internal issues such as amendment of HR process and managing HR team. Ex) As the results of questionnaire completed by HR (Exhibit 1.4), the HR manager focuses on staffing and performance management, while store managers ask HR to focus on knowledge of business and managing change additionally. 4) Others Short term result principal makes difficulty training to sense customers’ sensitive changes. HR department has been recognized cost center. 4. Alternative Solutions 1) Restructuring HR policies which is suitable for strategy HBC should Induce professional employees’ long service through amendment of Compensation system AS WAS  TO BE Compensation system . Monthly term incentive . Minimum base pay . Long term incentive . Raise base pay Long term incentive : paying incentive to employees after 2 or 3 years in the light of personal and company performance. (Effects : inducing employees of ability, retaining them) To stabilization of livelihood, base pay should be raised below budget. For the early maturity of newly market entry, HBC should prepare for system of reaction to changes such as holding regularly market trend seminars. 2) Establishing strategic suitable HR model HR’s administrative role should be empowered to sales managers and HR department just should take a role of professional group and advice to sales managers. So, sales managers should be responsible for man-power management such as evaluation, recruiting, and termination. On the other hand, HR department focuses on consulting sales organizations to become a value-adding strategic partner. Additionally, it also concentrates on structuring organization culture and managing sensitive changes. HR should have pay policy role, but valueless payroll function should be outsourced because payroll function is simple and repetitive if policy is definite. In addition, where new employee can learn selling techniques well is sales departments. So, the role should be decentralized to the sales departments. When all the HR’s role and functions are newly defined, sales and operation managers should get involved to all the organization become more strategic. AS WAS  TO BE HR Organization chart . HR manager . HR assistant 2 . Trainer . Payroll clerk (5 employees) . HR manager . HR assistant 2 (3 employees) HR’s function . Recruiting & Interviewing . Structuring & Operating HR policy . Training new employees . Payroll (McCain’s view) . Structuring HR policy . Consulting . Structuring organization Culture . Managing changes Sale’s function . Sales . Sales . Operating HR policy . Training new employees 3) HR manager Replacement Brenda should be forward deployed to sales department to systematically train as the future HR manager successor who fully understand management and whole organization. HBC should assign the new HR manager who perfectly understands business and strategy from either external HR expertise or one of the sales manager. The current superficial problem is shortage of professional employees and the root problem is that HR organization model is not align with strategy. To  solve the superficial problem HBC should push forward restructuring HR policies. Unless this problem is solved, it is meaningless to say the future of the company. Also, to solve root problem, HR organization model should be made a radical reform. When HR supports the company’s strategy, the company can be developed in one direction. On the other hand, HR manager replacement is extreme action and it could make whole organization increase tension. So, this action should be acted as a last resort.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Brand Positioning Essay

Positioning Statement culled from it for communication. Being a part of brand identity, it is a concise statement. Positioning statement is a declaration of the position our product/service will occupy in the mind of our target consumers. Before developing positioning statement we have look in to these areas: a. Market exploration: We have to assess first where our and our competitors’ brand stand today. b. Market segments: We consider target market segment c. Core identity: We then identify what is core identity or the essence of our brand d. Value proposition: It is better to know what criteria potential buyers use to choose one product/service over another. Identify a few criteria. e. Position of the existing products: Our product/service always has a relation to our competitive products. We have to see how our brand is perceived. Ultimately, we choose the best position. If that is already occupied, we think of taking the leader head on if we are strong or by-pass the leader and find other position. A concise positioning statement first describes what is important to the customers, and then what problem our product will solve for them, and how. Positioning is amenable to the following definition: 1. The position of a brand is the perception it brings in the mind of the target consumers. 2. This perception reflects the essence of the brand in terms of its functional benefits in the judgment of that consumers 3. It is relative to the perception held by a consumer of competing brands. The competing brands can be denoted as points or positions in perceptual space of the consumers and together make up a product/service class. 4. Positioning process consists of analysis of brand equity, core competencies, unmet consumer needs, competitive differentiation.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Perspectives in HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Perspectives in HRM - Essay Example One of the goals human resources is to retain the aging workforce to minimize the effect of labor shortage. According to Human Capital Theory this is a viable alternative. Age and performance have been known to be unrelated, thus aging and the lost of ability to function that accompanies it are not are not factors with older workers (University of Vermont). There are three HRM theories that can help professionals in this human resource field deal with the aging workforce dilemma. The three theories are contingency perspective, best practices approach and resourced-based. Contingency perspective says that organizations will be most successful when HR strategies fit their organizational strategy (Clarkson, 2006). There different ways for companies to deal with the problem of aging workforce, but in order for any approach to work in a particular company the HR must consider the organization culture and options that are aligned with the business. For example if an organization has a lot low tech people that like human interaction a training initiative to develop in house talent utilizing e-learning techniques would go against the principles of the contingency perspective. The best practice approach says that firms should imitate HRM leaders and some practices work better than others (Clarkson, 2006). Companies in the UK should keep a close eye on what other firms are doing to deal with the shortage of workers due to an aging workforce. The resourced-based theory is similar to the best practices approach but the theory encourages companies to utilize multiple approaches when dealing with human resource issues. The turnover of workers is an issue human resources have been dealing with for years. The aging workforce created a new type of involuntary turnover which is affecting enterprises. The top involuntary turnover category used to be dismissals, but the new aging

Friday, September 27, 2019

DO MUTUAL FUNDS DELIVER ALPHA Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

DO MUTUAL FUNDS DELIVER ALPHA - Dissertation Example Market selection is when the manager is able to select among the assets traded in the market the lowly priced asset and sell it at a higher price in the future due to its rise in returns. Market timing funds in most cases moves towards highly concentrated industry, fund which are large and align to small-cap stocks. The decisions that some managers do make sometime do outperform the market while at times they underperform. This has raised the debate whether the manager’s performance is guided by luck or skill in the manner under which they arrive at decision making. This paper undertakes to investigate how a number of mutual funds analyses have faired in their performance in the past years from a given data of selected fund firms. Finance literature has two contrasting strands on how optimal asset allocation is arrived at. On one hand, the argument has being that aggregate returns on the stock market are predictable and thus, investors are able to reach at optimal asset alloca tion based on the predictability strand. In contrast, argument has being that there is minimal evidence that investors utilize the predictability of aggregate stock market returns in their asset allocation. Investors in the past have being interested in funds that have large annual returns like the case of Fidelity Magellan mutual fund which outperformed S&P 500 index for 13 years in its 11 indexes from 1977 to 1989 under the stewardship of Peter Lynch. However, a number of funds making outstanding profits have being collapsing and investors are in the present days interested in other dynamics of fund performance. The problem has being the difficulty an investor faces in choosing the right manager to out perform the market and maintain. This paper undertakes a research that focuses on performance of some mutual funds by market timing and security selection. Market timing means that the manager has the ability to predict price changes of securities and thus, they invest or withdraw f unds in a timely manner from an investment. Security selection on the hand means that the manager has the ability to identify and select lowly priced securities that will provide returns in the future. 2. Literature Review Literature that has dwelled on evaluating performance of mutual funds has being very successful in the foundation of modern days theory on portfolio and how assets are valued (Guerard, 2009). The investors understanding on how to compile a portfolio by taking care of risk and returns has being contributed by Markowitz (1959) and Sharpe (1964). An investor will select a portfolio currently that is able to produce returns later. Sharpe (1964) in analyzing 34 open-ended mutual funds found out that the capital market efficiency is usually high. Also, managers are more interested in evaluating risk and engaging in diversification instead of evaluating on mispriced securities. According to Sharpe (1964), an investor is able to achieve any return on assets along the capi tal market line if he/she undertakes primary diversification at equilibrium because capital asset will have adjusted. This is because investors avoids risks in selecting among portfolios and are only concerned by mean and variance of their investment. The expected return can be maximized by undertaking additional risk on the holdings. Thus, in the market there will be two prices of interest rate and the risk price and for additional return per unit is as a result of

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Case study about Verizon wireless issues and possible improovements - 1

About Verizon wireless issues and possible improovements - Case Study Example However, there are several problems with the technologies that Verizon has available that are causing some concern with consumers. In addition, their pricing is well above the average and in the current economy will not encourage consumers to come to their service. Prepaid services are extremely limited and with the number of displaced workers and people who have experienced problems on a financial level, these limitations will hurt their bottom line where increases from alternative forms of service are considered. As well, the iPhone, although a great benefit to the company product line, is currently seeing problems in the way in which consumer groups are rating the product, thus causing problems in promoting the product. As well, AT&T are claiming that they are the only network on which the iPhone can be used for both voice and data at the same time. This deficit in technical capability will hamper the marketing capacity that Verizon has for the product, putting their service in a secondary position. The wireless industry, within the last decade, has taken over the land line industry through increases in product technologies and wireless access technologies. By 2004, the number of minutes used by wireless customers had reached 1 trillion, but in the three years that followed the number doubled to 2.1 trillion. Wireless communications are now used by 80% of the population and exceed 250 million users. The wireless industry invested 24 billion dollars in 2007 and is the resource for employment of 3.4 million Americans. Instant messages are out distancing e-mails as the preferred form of instant communication. The changes in the way in which people communicate through the technologies of wireless and broadband have revolutionized communications in the world (Verizon Wireless, Inc.) In 2007, worldwide revenue for telecommunications through wire line and wireless revenues

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Methods of Engagement in Afghanistan Research Paper

Methods of Engagement in Afghanistan - Research Paper Example Hamid Karzai, who was elected at large as president in 2004 was again re-elected in 2009. Notwithstanding the political progress gained by that war-torn country since the toppling of the Taliban, there remain serious challenges to Afghanistan’s political and economic transition (The World Factbook: Afghanistan 2010). On the security front, the Taliban have risen again to mount what is called today a neo-Taliban insurgency, which is slowly spreading in the countryside especially in the south because of the weakening of Karzai’s support among the local tribal leaders there. Afghanistan’s economy is also one big factor that is holding back the success of the reconstruction process. The long years of conflict had taken a toll on its economy and the infusion of funds from international sources during the reconstruction is not enough to turn it around and lift the country from total poverty. Poverty has led not only to shortages in housing, food, medical care and other basic support for its population but it has also led to the difficulty in eradicating opium poppies cultivation. As a matter of fact, opium poppy cultivation increased rather than decreased after the toppling of the Taliban and during reconstruction period in 2004 (The World Factbook: Afghanistan 2010; Gootnick 55). Finall y, ethnic and religious undertones often underpin conflicts that are still raging in Afghanistan as can be evidenced from the Taliban-led insurgency in the countryside. In accomplishing a successful reconstruction in Afghanistan, the US and its Coalition must succeed in eradicating the three-pronged problem that plague and hamper it: insurgency; economic poverty, and; religious and ethnic fundamentalism. One way of affecting a solution with the least loss of lives and minimal resources is a method of engagement that has already been recently put into a test by the Coalition Forces and is known as tribal engagement. This is the most credible solution to

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Operationalising the AMO (Ability, Motivation, Opportunity) framework Assignment

Operationalising the AMO (Ability, Motivation, Opportunity) framework - Assignment Example The AMO framework, also known as the people and performance model, is defined as the sum of the ability, motivation and opportunity of an employee (Raiden, Dainty, and Neale, 2006). ... As Boxall and Macky (2009) noted, â€Å"every human resources system works through its impacts on the skills and knowledge of individual employees, their willingness to exert effort, and their opportunities to express their talents in their work. However, human resource systems also affect a range of variables on a more collective level, helping to build organisational capabilities, and influencing the organisational culture, and social and psychological climate in which individuals are embedded.† More so, studies show that the AMO model does not only impact the organisational performance but the high performance work practice as well. Human resource managers are guided by policies and strategies covered by the disciplines of human resource management. These principles help managers in dealing with obstacles and serious situations of handling people well (O’Donnell, Livingston, and Bartram, 2009). Lee and Cummings (2008) supported this claim by recognising that managers â€Å"are credited with the responsibility of front line leadership and management.† As such, the knowledge of these leaders in applying the ability, motivation and job opportunities framework to employees and the workplace by implementing its theories into the company’s organisational behaviour is essential in the success of human resource management. Katou and Budhwar (2009) maintained that â€Å"the motivation to perform is further moderated by managerial style and organisational culture.† Strategies that can be used by managers include creating reward programmes, creative recruitment methods, job rotation and job redesign. To achieve high performance from employees, managers can apply the learning behaviour consequences feature of

Monday, September 23, 2019

Case Analysis (Global Management) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Case Analysis (Global Management) - Essay Example Instead of attempting to over-reach the company’s total capacity, seeking opportunities to maximize its current market position would be the most appropriate. Why is this? Chabros established a competitive pricing model that was aligned with an acceptable operating margin. Coupled with this competitive advantage, Chabros also maintained a quality-focused customer relationship management process that included flexible payment terms and no requests for letters of credit. This was a sustainable strategy until the global economic recession in 2009 which radically reduced sales in certain subsidiaries. As a proven business model of CRM and the ability to establish very competitive pricing in key markets, the business would only require adjustment of its current sales and marketing strategy to achieve the desired improvements in revenues. With the business always being at risk of changing currency values, market demand, and recessionary concerns, improving capacity would add more expenditures to the operating budget that would not, likely, offset gains by simply improving output capacity for its high revenue-producing production facilities. The most appropriate strategy for Chabros is to pursue a market penetration strategy to achieve its desired results. By maximizing capacity, increases in salaries and other associated labor would be highly detrimental to achieving market success. Chabros was considering entering the Moroccan market as a means of expanding its market presence, however there are factors that could seriously impede progress in finding rapid sales success there. Firstly, tariffs are extremely high on both products, especially veneer, which would have to translate into higher pricing in order to offset these new costs. Add to this a value-added tax rate of 14 percent, it is not likely that the same competitive advantages as related to pricing would work in this market when having to incur all of these

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Business and law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Business and law - Case Study Example Their Lordships are far from denying that there is force in an argument on these lines. It is very natural to see something anomalous in the introduction into Malaya of a special rule of English law of this kind. Nevertheless, English law itself lied introduced into Penang, as part of the Straits Settlements, as far as it is applicable to the circumstances of the place. Regarding the pivotal clause 7.4, the case law principles governing proper construction, is in the view of the judges on the appeal is that change after the demise of the Bubble Act in nineteenth century England brought about 'a new legal framework transforming incorporation from a closely-guarded privilege into a freely available right.'12 But it seems to have been a 2A variety of factors led to that result. It however, did not receive a universal welcomed. The rise of the limited liability company faced substantial opposition from vested commercial interests fearful of competition from corporations and others, and f earful of the impunity of owners in the event of corporate insolvency. The objection by Steggles Limited in the House of Commons to the incorporation of a proposal by Yarrabee Chicken Company Pty Ltd has a certain modern resonance. ... The nature of the term, which the primary judge had implied into the contract, reflected that against that background, there is, no doubt, a major challenge for the legal adviser in communicating comprehensibly to those who conduct their business, through corporations, large and small, about the law, which those structures lie, created and which regulates their operation. That challenge remained enhanced when corporate structures lie allied, as they often are, to trust arrangements. On the grounds and case law, which the judges on appeal decide, is that which lies implied in terms of fact. These however do not required to give ‘business efficacy’ to the contract as The fact that Steggles was free at all times to determine the number of chicks or the density of the batches to be delivered to the Growers was very much at the heart of the contract. It shows that the contract stood weighted heavily in favor of the commercial interests of Steggles. 3With regard to this implie d term issue, it is sufficient in our view to say that the flaws in the Growers’ approach to the construction of cl 7.4 lay revealed in the difficulties, which her Honour discussed, in particular, in her second judgment. We do not consider it is necessary to address every argument considered and disposed of by the primary judge. In short, what would lie required by that construction of cl 7.4(a) was for Steggles to make extensive enquiries of Growers as to their ongoing capacity to rear chickens to remain processed at the Beresfield plant. Importantly, her Honour recognised that the act of her second judgment was so construed, and that the obligations of Steggles under the clause imposed some constraints

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Police, Civil Liability and the Law Essay Example for Free

Police, Civil Liability and the Law Essay At the onset of the 20th century, police work can best be described as very authoritative and policemen or law enforcers were themselves considered the law. Criminality was low principally because of the relatively stable economy and the population density in cities and urban centers were a hundred time, or even more, than today. As symbol of authority, the police was then looked up to by the citizenry with great respect and even with admiration. Through the years, the public image of the policeman is suspect. In truth city police departments today already employ spokesmen or public relations officers to ensure the respectability of the service is protected and preserved. The changes in the concept of police work tremendously changed over the last century, or to be more specific the 25 years. The situation was brought about by the growing public conscious on human rights which is guaranteed no less by the United Nations. While before police training was focused on proper handling of firearms and marksmanships, traffic rules and regulations, todays police officer should be conscious of every persons human rights. Otherwise he or she may end up in court being sued for civil liability or damages. Changing Concept on the Police Over the years the police service has underwent some sort of an evolution. From a strong image of authority, the police has to some extent been compelled to accept the fact that their functions or source of power emanates from the taxpayers who wanted them to be their protectors instead of oppressors. The situation is quite complex. While they have the mandate to enforce or implement the laws, the police are being restricted by a string of guidelines better known in their lingo as the rules of engagement. They have to comply with the rules in the performance of their duties because failure to do so could mean suspension or worse dismissal from the service. Unlike before when for instance, a traffic police officer can simply issue a citation ticket to a motorist who violated a traffic law todays system places the supposed violator on a position of strength. He or she can write on the citation ticket the words under protest to signify the intention to question the actuation of the traffic officer for flagging him or her for a supposed violation. The situation for policemen whose duties are to run after criminal elements or members of the underworld is even more difficult. Unlike before when they would simply pick up a suspected person and have him or her placed under interrogation or tactical questioning, todays detective or police intelligence officer need to first gather substantial proofs or incontrovertible eyewitness accounts in order to be able to apply for a warrant of arrest from the court. Down for a supposed violation Because of the complex nature in today’s justice system, police work now requires them to be conscious of the civil or human rights of every citizen. Additionally, they also need to be more aware of the rules of court or run the risk of being rebuffed or they cases they brought up for prosecution or litigation may end up dismissed for either insufficiency of evidence or non-compliance to the rules in effecting or carrying out arrests and raids. The preponderance of diligence in the performances of police duties and responsibilities in the enforcement of the laws is so emphasized that police officers are restricted from conducting investigations or questioning without the presence of the suspects preferred or lawyer of his or her choice. Civil Liability of Abusive Members of the Police Department Todays police officers are made by law liable for their actuations as a result of an alarming pattern of abuse they commit in the process of dispensing their duties. Perhaps because of media attention or coverage on police work, abuses have eventually been documented or difficult to deny as far as the police officer is concern. Every now and then, the public would see on television brutal police handling of suspected offenders. The abuses have become so frequent that the time has now come where victims of police abuse have to get back at them by suing for civil liability or damages. Perhaps, as society experiences new trends in law enforcement more laws to ensure that the power or authority vested in police officers are only used for the public good and not make the police as a threat to society itself. By making them civilly liable for high handedness in the performance of the laws, police officers will be kept on their toes. Guide to Civil Liability In view of the above positions, it is notable to discuss a book manual for police officers’ to consider in the performances of their duties and in relation to their civil liability and the law. In a book entitled â€Å"The Police Officer’s Guide to Civil Liability,† Franklin (1993) emphasized the need for law enforcers, police officers in particular, to adhere to a standard guide to enable them to abide by their principles and at the same time uphold the concept of civil liability. Franklin noted that due to the increased number of court cases hurled against police officers, there is also a mounting need to teach these law enforcers on the dynamics of civil law. This is because such training or learning should be innate among police officers and within their profession and in order for them to survive the field (Franklin, 1993). While the required knowledge on civil liability totally varies from their abilities and expertise which are essential to be alive in a fatal shooting incident, having proficiency about civil law may avert a devastating possibility or outcome which will ultimate affect the career of the police officer and which is definitely dreadful as any form of shoot-out or gun battle. Additionally, the monetary and emotional implications of a civil case are often than not surpass the physical suffering which is likened to a gun shot wound (Franklin, 1993). The book noted that as professionals, police officers are, in one way or the other, are engaged in a civil case. Franklin noted the stress it had inflicted on law enforcers and their respective police departments in general. However, police officers are still limited with civil law or civil liability trainings which may assist them in their court battles. It is unfortunate to note that a large amount of money which will be used in the court proceedings as well as many lives of police officers could be saved if only there is a provision of civil liability education or training. This is because such kind of knowledge created a better and well-prepared police officer who can react to any kind of police situation or effectively carry out his duties to people and the society. Through this training, there will also be a reduction in the possibilities of a defeat in the civil case, and most importantly, this is the fundamental determining factor for the efficiency and value of police officer and his civil liability training (Franklin, 1993). Conclusion An increased awareness on the need for police officers to learn and adhere to civil liability in reference to specific laws of the country is a positive effort to undertake. This is because such consciousness will allow police officers to carry out their obligations, in a legal or appropriate manner, without the hindrance of possible civil lawsuit. While there are members of the police force who are undeniably amiss in their profession, it is worthy to consider that this is not the general view of the police department. Additionally, any misconception about the police profession may be corrected in such a way that the police officers are portrayed as important members of the society who are bound to protect people, property and the society as a whole. Hence, it is just but fair to provide police officers trainings and related means which will enable them to appropriately respond to the security or safety requirements of the people. Ultimately, the concept and the need to uphold civil liability will serve as a reminder for police officers that their authority entails responsibility.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Critical accounting theory

Critical accounting theory Introduction There are several reasons there is no one universally accepted theory of accounting. The reasons are of two sorts. The first is philosophical. The second is practical. This essay discusses each of these. It then provides examples from accounting theory. Philosophical reasons The statement There is no universally accepted accounting theory is true by definition. Scientific understanding of the term theory denies that any theory can be universally accepted. According to Popper (e.g., 2002a, 2002b), theories are conjectures that are put to the test. If they are refuted by the test, they are either rejected or refined. If they are not refuted, they remain theories (not facts). They are then put to further tests, and are further refined. In order for this to proceed, there must exist rival theories. In this way, theories compete in a process of Darwinian selection. The theories never get to the truth, but they get progressively closer. This is the first reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. If there were a universally accepted theory of accounting, it wouldnt be a theory. It would be something else. Notice that, according to Popper, no theory ever arrives at certain knowledge. The best any theory can do is curtail ignorance. Moreover, if scientists were to discover a true theory, there would be no way they could know it was true, so there would still be competing theories. This last point needs elaboration. GÃ ¶dels incompleteness theorems (see, e.g., Hofstadter, 1979) demonstrate that, in any system of logic rich enough to contain formal arithmetic there exists an infinite number of statements that are true but that are impossible, in principle, for the system to know to be true. This means, in practical terms, that in any complex system-for example, an economic system-there exist solutions to problems that are known by the system, but are not known by any individual within it. This is appreciated by leading economists (e.g., Hayek, 1979). Further, given that there exist usually infinitely more wrong solutions to problems than correct solutions to problems, any attempt to solve such problems by diktat is infinitely more likely to lead to failure than to success. As regards economics, this led Hayek (1944) to his espousal of the free market. As regards theory in science, it means that any attempt to impose a single theory on anything is likely to lead to a seriously wrong theory. This is another reason for believing there can be no universally accepted theory of accounting. Any universally accepted theory could only be universally accepted if it were imposed by diktat, and, if it were imposed by diktat, it would of necessity most likely be wrong. Therefore it would give rise to a rival theory. Related to this, Feyerabend (1996) argues that there is no such thing as a single scientific method, and that any attempt to impose one is counter-productive. Feyerabends philosophy of science is summarised as anything goes. This, provides another reason for there being no single theory of accounting. If there can be no universally accepted method, there can be no universally accepted theory. There are two popular views of science that are in conflict with Poppers perspective: positivism and postmodernism. Positivism is the philosophy, associated with Ayer (1946) that says that the only meaningful statements are those that are true by logic and those that may be verified by observation. This is the verification principle. The first problem with the verification principle is that it is neither a truth of logic nor an empirically verifiable fact, therefore by its own terms it is meaningless. The second problem is that in implies science proceeds inductively. But inductive logic (drawing general conclusions from specific instances) is flawed: a million observations of white swans, for example, does not demonstrate that all swans are white (indeed, they arent: some swans are black). Postmodernism is the philosophy that reality is socially constructed. So what is real to one person may be unreal to another. At a trivial level, this is true, for different people see the same things in different ways. It is also true that, historically, science progressed in some instances by changes in world view, or paradigm (Kuhn, 1996). However, this is a question more of the sociology of science, not of ontology. And taken literally postmodernism is absurd. It leads to the conclusion that there is no such thing as reality. The prevalence of competing philosophies of science-Popperism, positivism, and postmodernism-provides another reason for there being no universally accepted theory of accounting. There is no universally accepted view of what constitutes reality. Thus one should expect there to be different theories of accounting, each with its cadre of supporters. Practical reasons There are three purposes for any theory of accounting, and each makes different demands on the theory. The first is that accounting should provide the best information about a companys position. Such a theory is prescriptive, in that it suggests how best accountants should ply their trade. Such a viewpoint is said to be normative. A normative theory is one that states what is best practice. A theory of accounting may also seek to describe what accountants do. Any science must include accurate descriptions. It is logically possible for a researcher to adhere to a descriptive theory yet bemoan the fact that accountants dont follow what the researcher considers the correct (i.e., normative) practice. There is another aspect to descriptive theories. Until the advent of cheap computers, there was no way that researchers could analyse vast collections of data. Moreover, very often the data were unavailable (Gaffikin), 2008). Computers have changed this. This is another reason for believing there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A descriptive theory is only as good as the data fed into it. But it is impossible to analyse all the data, only different blocks of data. Different blocks may give rise to different descriptions. In describing how accountants behave, researchers must gather evidence. But what evidence? And how should researchers gather it? Positivists tend to use quantitative data. These are data that are, supposedly objective, and may be expressed numerically and manipulated statistically. Company sales figures are an example. Postmodernists tend to use qualitative data. These are data that make no claim to objectivity and are difficult to express numerically. The findings of unstructured interviews-emotions, impressions, and so on-are examples of qualitative data. Because of this, even when presented with the same evidence, different researchers may reach different conclusions. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A theory of accounting can seek to explain. Such theories are scientific in the Popperian sense, for they may be refuted. It is logically possible for a researcher to believe that Theory 1 is the best explanatory theory, Theory 2 is the best descriptive theory, and Theory 3 is the best normative theory. Thus again there are many theories of accounting. Any researcher may subscribe to three different theories, and do so without being inconsistent. In practice, the distinction between normative, descriptive, and explanatory theories is blurred. Any theory of one type may have features of the others. Example theories This section considers discusses two example theories. Theory 1: Positive accounting theory There are several problems with normative theory. One concerns what to enter. Consider assets. An accountant does not know how much a companys assets are worth. So the accountant uses one of several indicators (historical cost, for instance). The accountant must also estimate how much assets depreciate. Accountants use algorithms to calculate depreciation-typically, straight line depreciation such that assets become worthless after three years. Such algorithms are only broadly accurate. Such considerations led Watts and Zimmerman (1978) to develop positive accountancy theory. The theory is in part descriptive, in that it states what real-world accountants do, and in part explanatory, in that it purports to explain why accountants behave in the way they do. The theory says, in effect, that company accounts do not accord with reality. Instead, they accord with what powerful interests (stakeholders, shareholders, managers) want others to see as reality. The theory makes two assumptions: Homo economicus. This states three things. First, people are entirely rational. Second, people act only out of self-interest. Third, people act only to maximise their wealth. The efficient market hypothesis (EMH). This states that, left to its own devices (i.e., if unregulated), the market delivers an optimum price for any good or service. The EMH states that prices accord with all available information. The reason positive accounting theory makes these assumptions is that, without them, it is difficult to make quantifiable predictions, but with them it is relatively easy. Thus, for example, with them one can predict companies in one particular environment will prefer a different form of accounting from companies in another type of environment. Thus, for example, Watts and Zimmerman (1978) predict that firms whose earnings are increased by general price level adjusted accounting (GPLA) will oppose GPLA, but firms whose earnings are decreased by GPLA will favour it. But the notion of H. economicus is problematic-some people are unintelligent, some are altruistic, and so on (Lunn, cited in Clark, 2008), The EMH is also contentious. Some economists accept it, others dont. The EMH is also vague. If the market is efficient, the EMH doesnt say how long it takes to reach a decision Also, if the EMH were true, arbitrage would be impossible. The best one can say about the assumptions is that they provide an approximation of reality. How good an approximation it is, nobody knows. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. Some people think the assumptions provide a good approximation; some people think they provide a bad one. Fama and French (2004) state that markets can be inefficient and investors can be ill-informed and irrational, Just as owners, governments, and workers have vested interests, so have Watts and Zimmerman. In their case, they are interested in promoting positive accounting theory. So, in this regard, the theory has a normative aspect. It concerns how accountancy researchers should practice their trade. If all researchers follow Watts and Zimmermans diktats, Watts and Zimmerman will become rich. Naturally, all accountancy researchers want to be in Watts and Zimmermans position, but the only way for them to do so is to develop a rival theory. This is another reason there is no universally accepted accountancy theory. Theory 2. Critical accounting theory Critical accounting theory isnt really a theory. Its more a style of criticism. It aims, not only to alter accounting practice, but to change society (Gaffikin, 2008). It is political. Thus, for example, Laughlin (cited in Davis, 2008) states: A critical understanding of the role of accounting processes and practices and the accounting profession in the functioning of society and organisations with an intention to use that understanding to engage (where appropriate) in changing these processes, practices and the profession. In this, critical accounting theory is postmodernist. Postmodernists point to the numerous flaws in positive accountancy theory. They highlight the weaknesses in the concepts of H. economicus and the EMH. They point out that Watts and Zimmerman use rhetorical devices to put the views across. They argue that the methodology and measuring instruments of positivist theories are crude, and so on. Occasionally, they make (or repeat) good points (e.g., the EMH is incorrect) (e.g., Mouck, 1992). As indicated, postmodernists deny the existence of objective reality. In doing so, they deny the possibility of determining the truth, or worth, of any statement. Thus they deny the truth, or worth, of postmodernism. This is the problem with postmodernism. If reality is socially constructed, then there cannot be a universally accepted theory, for socially constructed reality differs according to who is doing the constructing. A true theory to one postmodernist is a false theory to all others. That is why there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. References Ayer, A.J. (1946). Language, truth and logic. (2nd ed.). London: Gollancz. Clark, T. (2008, November 1). Market madness. The Guardian. Davis, D. (2008). Critical accounting theory. Lecture 9. Lecture notes. Bangor Business School. Feyerabend, P. (1996). Against method: Outline of an anarchistic theory of knowledge. San Francisco, CA: Analytical Psychology Club of San Francisco, Fama, E.F. and French, A.R. (2004). The CAPM: Theory and Evidence. On line: http://www.econ.sdu.edu.cn/jrtzx/uploadfile/pdf/Assetpricing/04.pdf Gaffikin, M. (2008). Accounting theory: Research, regulation and accounting practice. French Forest, Australia: Pearson Education. Hayek, F. A. (1979). Unemployment and monetary policy. San Francisco: Cato Institute. Hayek, F. A. (1944). The road to serfdom. London: George Routledge Hofstadter, D. (1979). G?del, Esther, Bach: An eternal golden braid. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mouck, T. (1992). The rhetoric of science and the rhetoric of revolt in the story of positive accounting theory. Accounting Auditing, and Accountability, 5 (4): 35-56. Popper, K. (2002a). Unended quest. An intellectual biography. London: Routledge. Popper, K. (2002b). Conjectures and refutations. London: Routledge. Watts, R.L. And Zimmerman, J.L. (1978). Towards a positive theory of the determination of accounting standards. Accounting Review, 53: 112-132.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

The ‘Choose Cadbury’ Marketing Strategy Essay -- Business and Manageme

The ‘Choose Cadbury’ Marketing Strategy The ‘glass and a half’, corporate purple, and the Cadbury script has become synonymous with Cadbury. Cadbury Schweppes have used these design elements to great effect in developing the implication of goodness that this imagery suggests. In the late 1980s, another important element, known as ‘taste’ was emphasised. Regardless of national preferences about how chocolate should taste (e.g. dark chocolate is very popular to Europeans, whereas Australians prefer creamier milk chocolate), the implication was clear that, Cadbury Schweppes provides taste and texture that, appeals to all consumers. For example, Cadbury Miniature Heroes includes a variety of chocolates such as, dark milk chocolate (e.g. Cadbury Dairy Milk), creamier milk chocolate (e.g. Cadbury Dream), chocolate with trace of nuts (e.g. CDM Whole Nut), etc. In the early 1990s, further emphasise was made on ‘taste’. For example, the strapline ‘Chocolate is Cadbury’, which was built upon previous brand values, enables Cadbury to stake its claim and taking ownership of the term ‘chocolate’ and the chocolate eating experience. In the early 2000, Cadbury Schweppes introduced a new global marketing strategy, known as the ‘Choose Cadbury’. The ‘Choose Cadbury’ strategy was developed from a result of extensive research on consumer behaviour and awareness. The ‘Choose Cadbury’ strategy is a campaign that clearly shows how a brand can develop and how various messa...

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Australian Court Hierarchy :: essays research papers

The term â€Å"Court Hierarchy† is a very important word in the law world in modern society. It’s definition gives a very clear and concise meaning to the law industry. The phrase can be split into two words to be easily dealt and understood. The word â€Å"court† is from a Greek derivative â€Å"cohors† or â€Å"cohort† meaning courtyard or retinue. It’s definition from the dictionary certainly portrays the law as a very important and distinguished practice. â€Å"a. A person or body of persons whose task is to hear and submit a decision on cases at law.† â€Å"b. The building, hall, or room in which such cases are heard and determined.† The word, â€Å"hierarchy†, however, has a more powerful and specific relation to the law world. It is a Greek derived word and originally came from the word â€Å"hierarkhia†, meaning the rule of a high priest. â€Å"a. A body of clergy organized into successive ranks or grades with each level subordinate to the one above.† â€Å"b. A series in which each element is graded or ranked.† By placing these two words together, it has a responsibility of giving the public a definition of one of the most important practices portrayed by the Court System of Australia. Court Hierarchy is the term given to the system in which the Courts of Australia are split into different levels to deal with different matters by different levels of severity. The jurisdiction of courts’ is very important due to the fact that different courts deal with special matters differently from another court. The term jurisdiction means â€Å"a. The right and power to interpret and apply the law.† This means that the different courts of Australia deal with matters according to severity and relevance of that particular case to be heard in the highest possible court. This is the how the courts of Australia deal with which cases are heard in a specific court. No two courts have the same areas of jurisdiction even though it is a fact that the same case can be appealed and heard in a different court. The higher court which heard the appeal can over-rule the previous verdict. Jurisdiction brings efficiency to the court system allowing minor cases to be filtered through the court system and brought up and heard by the most appropriate court. In the Court Hierarchy System, there are six courts all together. The names of each from the highest and most powerful court to the lowest, are:

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Adultery and Society Essay

Much has already been said about Couples – John Updike’s controversial 1968 novel about the lives and indiscretions of well-off couples living in the suburban town of Tarbox, Boston. At first glance, the novel may seem like a run of the mill erotic novel – tawdry and titillating, but nothing more. This was, in fact, the common perception that greeted the novel on its debut in 1968, hence its notoriety as a â€Å"controversial† novel. Much of its hype, however, is not lost, considering the amount of sex – illicit and otherwise – that graces the pages of the novel, as well as the forthright manner with which Updike boldly discusses these activities. Scandal and notoriety prevented a proper and contextual understanding of Updike’s novel, leaving it languishing in literary purgatory. In time, however, with the changes in society and modern views on sex, Updike’s Couples has, to some degree, been resurrected and reevaluated with a different perspective and point of view. Though still shocking in its extensive discussion of adultery and lecherous behavior in general, the novel has finally emerged from under its tag as a bawdy piece of B-rated literature to become one of Updike’s signature novels. No longer viewed as eroticized sensationalism, the novel is now seen as a representation of Updike’s most striking leitmotif: suburban adultery. If not erotica for eroticism’s sake, what then is the central thought in Updike’s Couples? Such is the question that this paper now intends to answer. This paper posits that John Updike’s Couples reflects the collapse of traditional values in the face of modernity particularly in the early 1960s. With the parameters of sexuality shattered by the advent of birth control, wealthy men and women living the â€Å"perfect† life are actually morally in disarray. Society, despite its beautiful and urbane facade, is in reality rotting away and slowly experiencing a moral decay. The beauty of suburbia and its polished citizens stand in sharp contrast to the breakdown of social norms and propriety. Such is the theme of John Updike’s Couples. To prove so, it is necessary to first look into the writer himself, John Updike. Much of his writings reflect his personal opinions, of course, and understanding the writer will most certainly provide a better contextual understanding of the novel. Moreover, it is necessary that a discussion of the era (early 1960s, under the Kennedy administration) be conducted in order to fully relay the circumstances that give way to the morally reprehensible â€Å"system† established by the titular couples. Lastly, this paper shall look into the juxtaposition of aesthetics (the beauty of both the people and the suburban town they inhabit) and the rotten structure of banality they willingly cling to. These are the significant aspects of John Updike’s Couples that shall be discussed. First of all, who was John Updike? Little is known about Updike’s childhood, except that he was born to a middle class Pennsylvania family in 1932. John Updike’s interest in writing began with his mother’s instructions, herself a prolific writer. His mother’s influence proved intense and enduring, giving him the strength and courage to continue with writing. Despite the lack of sufficient funds for his education, Updike’s talents received recognition and earned him a full scholarship at Harvard University, where he joined the Harvard Lampoon. Upon graduation, he joined the New Yorker, which published his first story, Friends from Philadelphia, in 1954. The story would soon be followed by several more of his writings, all published through the New Yorker. By the end of the 1950s, Updike was reaping the fruits of a successful literary career (Pritchard 2000, p. 2). It was not, however, his writing technique that caught the fancy of critics. Though fluid and never boring, it is not his efficient style that gained support for John Updike. Unfortunately, his choice of subject matter overshadowed his style of writing, essentially giving way to the â€Å"controversial† tag. Couples is just one example of his unique point of view and manner of describing even the most intimate of details (Amidon 2005, p. 51). The mention and overt discussion of sex remained quite touchy, if not entirely taboo, even as society during the 1960s had significantly modernized. The effect of his controversial topics, however, had led to a period wherein his writings were shunned, to a certain degree, and remained misclassified as bawdy erotica. â€Å"Suburban adultery†, a topic most associated with John Updike, is born of his own experiences in grappling with the temptations of sex and desire. The writing of the novel Couples came at a time when he was completely confused in his personal life, particularly with regards to his marriage. Updike was in the middle of a passionate love affair and was, in fact, contemplating filing for a divorce. In the end, he decided not to push through with the plan for divorce (Pritchard 2000, p. 119). The topic, therefore, is described vividly in every scene of the novel, reflecting Updike’s own struggle with his inner demons and the destruction of the institution of marriage before his very eyes. The crumbling of his own marriage proved to be the very basis of Couples. To Updike, a certain degree of the story of a failed marriage is â€Å"sad magic† (Pritchard 2000, p. 124). Extramarital relations for Updike are not erotic, despite the manner with which he describes the sexual activities of his characters in the novel. Rather than titillating, the goal of Updike’s prose is to portray the emptiness that these affairs and illicit relationships cause. There is no desire to eroticize or sexualize the characters; the idea is to present the weaknesses of their personalities and the ramifications of unbridled desire. It is not specifically aiming for preaching either, focusing only on the emotional hollowness that gives birth to the seed of lust and temptations in the first place. As Updike himself explains, his idea of sex in his literary achievements is far from intentionally erotic. Rather, the idea is to create a portrait wherein sex is a tool; it is a means by which Updike indicts the weaknesses of society’s moral fiber. As he said of sex in his writings in an interview with CNN, â€Å"I’ve seen it said of my work that it’s ‘anti-aphrodisiac,’ that it doesn’t – that my descriptions of sex doesn’t turn you on. But they’re not really meant to do that. I mean, sex described in detail is not a turn-on† (Austin 1998). Updike is far from a prude, true, yet his writings are not erotic for eroticism’s sake. The goal is to present moral weaknesses, not join banality. Unlike the earlier accusation of critics, the story of Couples is far from erotic, despite its routine use of sexual scenes and explicit activities. The story revolves around the lives of several couples living in an upscale community in Tarbox – a fictional suburb located in Boston. These young couples live wealthy lifestyles and have enough time on their hands to fool around. Piet Hanema, for example, is a serial adulterer. He has trysts with Foxy, as well as with several more of the novel’s women. His decadence is merely one of the morally bankrupt scenes in the story. It is not just Piet, though, who experiences a life of immorality and lack of a moral center. The couples engage in â€Å"wife-swapping† activities, such as in the case of the Applebys and the Little-smiths. None of the members of the community are entirely above the erotic rondalla, sending everyone in the community into a moral tailspin. In the end, however, it is Piet and his mistress Foxy who are cast out from the lot. Piet, since the beginning of the novel, is insistent on gaining freedom from his marriage. Though initially not bent towards the destruction of his own marriage, in the end, Piet divorces his wife Angela and his thrown out of the apartment with his mistress. As Greiner (1984) points out, â€Å"lovers are drawn as much to what destroys marriage as to what supports it† (p. 146). They are far from completely beyond the trappings of love, hence its effect as a double-edged sword. While it is love that bound two souls together under the sacrament of marriage in the first place, it is also â€Å"love† or whatever passes for it that successfully questions the sacrament and stands as a threat to its stability. Despite accepting the sacrament of marriage and his chained life, Piet needs and wants room, seeking sex and love from elsewhere despite his wife’s presence. There is a need to hone his skills as an illicit lover, and the adrenaline rush of such relationships do exist. And yet despite their illicit activities and immoral actions, Updike refuses to view his characters as villains. They are far from perfect, given their morally unstable relationships, and they are all tottering over the edge of hell with their hypocritical Presybterian lives. None of them truly lives up to the Christian ideals, and they can be described as having their own religion – the religion of sex and lust. Despite these errors and flaws, however, the characters are not evil per se. They are, rather, personifications of Updike’s understanding of suburbia and the moral decay that goes on behind the facade of wealth and propriety. They are weak, not evil, and are merely caught in the struggle to keep up with the liberal times even with the significant changes in society during this period (Greiner 1984, p. 148). Unfortunately, the highlighting of adulterous Tarbox soon became news across every home in the United States. Rather than view the sublime veins incorporated in Updike’s novel, it was soon branded sensationalized and controversial. Protests emerged, decrying Updike’s use of explicit words and graphic portrayal of sex. Perhaps most important of these criticisms, however, may be Anatole Broyard’s criticism of Piet Hanema, noting that there could be no sympathy for a â€Å"fornicator† (Greiner 1984, p. 149). In this the critics see the point of Updike’s novel, yet completely miss it as well To classify Updike’s novel as no more than a potboiler is to ignore its finer and less prominent points. To many, the adulterous activities and their graphic descriptions are the core of the novel. Looking past beyond such however, is the only way to find the true meaning of Updike’s Couples. In the world of Tarbox, sex is just another ordinary day. Despite their preoccupation with it, sex is not the core of the community. It is, of course, an ironic glue that brings various couples together and inevitably unhinges them when the time comes. The characters are simply wandering from one relationship to another, in search not of true love, but of companionship and momentary beauty. Rather than portray the couples as treacherous villains determined to subvert the values of the day, Updike presents them as brats unwilling to succumb to the demands of married life. The central concept of their lives is â€Å"fun†, and with the end of each day, beyond the trappings of the suburban community, husband and wife find themselves alone with the bills, the children, the leftover food and the dishes to wash. To a certain degree, such a relationship is less exciting and not quite as desirable as spending time with the equally bored neighbors (Grenier, 1984, p. 151). The couples, therefore, are far from total villains and much easier to understand as adults with the minds of young children, unwilling accept responsibility yet entirely willing to pursue the cult of fun. To say that they are the product of a determinedly lost generation is to heap unnecessary blame on the characters. It is not that they preeminently wished for the structure of such a morally reprehensible situation. The issues in the novel are, in fact, the product of the times. The characters are merely swept up in the current, following the changing values and transitional problems that occur when modernity clashes with traditional values. There are changes in society, with growing wealth and scientific advances, and it is simply not possible to ignore the changes; the characters succumb to the call of the â€Å"wild† despite their surface urbanity. As mentioned earlier, it is not an innate â€Å"evilness† that Updike wishes to uncover in his Couples. The underlying core is less sinister than what critics and censors of his day had easily assumed. In truth, the story of Updike’s novel is no more a potboiler than a thriller. It is simply a portrayal of Updike’s own nostalgic view of the changes in society, including the slow deconstruction of a small town similar to the one he grew up in. Throughout the novel, the tone is largely wistful, reminiscent of a different past. There is something in the manner with which Updike contrasts the beautiful town and the rotting away of its core; a resounding sigh seems to escape Updike’s lips with every word. Much of the story’s very core is essentially reliant on the time frame of the novel. Updike pegs it on the early 1960s, under the Kennedy administration. As he himself pointed out, there is no way that the plot could’ve existed in a different era. He noted that the action â€Å"could have taken place only under Kennedy; the social currents it traces are as specific to those years as flowers in a meadow are to their moment of summer† (Neary 1992, p. 144). There is something specific in the era that Updike particularly takes note of: the introduction of the bill and the liberation of women from the yokes of pregnancy. Without fear of pregnancy hanging over their heads, sex outside of marriage becomes a much more realistic possibility. It is what Updike calls the â€Å"post-pill paradise† (Sheed 1968), a world wherein the problem of unwanted pregnancy no longer exists. Updike describes his characters as wealthier than their predecessors, having been born into an era of relative prosperity. There is no limit to their desire for fulfillment, regardless of the price. They are driven by the id, raised in a culture of â€Å"me† and supported by the changing society. It is not just Tarbox which is changing. It is far from a microcosm entirely separate from the rest of society. Updike does not portray the suburb as a cancer entirely separate and different from the rest of the country. Rather, the suburb of Tarbox is a representative of many. The characters, themselves generic, are easily interchangeable and quite possibly recognizable in any town across the United States. In this world of change, not omly the couples of Tarbox are transformed. They are part of a larger social transformation, and Updike’s focus on their interactions and illicit affairs present his understanding of society (not just suburbia) in general. The couples, though seemingly too deviant and unbelievable to be considered general stereotypes, are in fact Updike’s definition of the moral breakdown of society. It is not an indictment of suburban life (despite the use of the term â€Å"suburban adultery†). The location of his subjects is more of a realistic portrayal than an unfair indictment. His judgment is not one of localization. Rather, Updike is presenting the class most affected by the changes in the Kennedy administration, primarily due to their wealth and social status. It is also in this level that the reality of class versus crass becomes most realize. Behind the beautiful homes and educated facades, there is darkness. The players randomly select their next partner, playing a grand, elaborate and ritualistic game of musical chairs with their neighbors. Play, again, is a significant theme in Updike’s novel, being the central concept that drives the couples to pursue sexual adventures again and again. The significance of the time period should not be ignored. Updike describes his characters as the products of national tribulations. Following the Great Depression and World War II, these young couples find themselves thrust into a new America, one that struggles to keep up the facade of decency while slowly eroded away by modernity and the vulgarity of the new world order. These characters are far from intentionally indecent, however. Their initial goal was to be enveloped in beauty, separate from the staleness of the rest of the nation and the vulgarity that threatens to creep up the morality ladder (Sheed 1968). In the end, however, they find themselves in a vulgarity of their own making, hidden under the sheen of decency and beauty that the suburbs signify. Quoting Updike, â€Å"the ultimate influence of a government whose taxes and commissions and appetite for armaments set limits everywhere, introduced into a nation whose leadership allowed a toothless moralism [sic] to dissemble a certain practiced cunning, into a culture where adolescent passions and homosexual philosophies were not quite yet triumphant, a climate still furtively hedonist† (Neary 1992, p. 146). The passage describes Updike’s view of the world in which the couples were molded. For all their failures and flaws, these characters were but the products of a bigger problem. Society itself, led by the government, was far from the pristine, moral structure it once was. The Applebys, the Little-smiths, the Guerins, the Constantines, the Hanemas etc. are merely the by-products of a flawed era. The destruction of society, therefore, does not begin and end with suburban adultery. It is merely a microcosm of a larger decay – one that goes beyond the wife-swapping activities of the inhabitants of Tarbox, Boston. In part, Updike’s focus is on the period and the circumstances that give rise to the opportunities for suburban adultery. One significant detail that Updike notes is the introduction of birth control. Whereas the novels of the 1950s focused on the â€Å"everyone is pregnant† motif, in Updike’s novel it is more of an â€Å"everyone is guilty† narrative (Greiner 1984, p. 145). Previously, pregnancy outside of marriage was the biggest obstacle for illicit lovers. Physical consummation, after all, could always leave an undeniable proof in the woman’s womb. With the introduction of the pill, however, a new â€Å"paradise† is opened to the people, with the characters of Updike’s Couples taking full advantage of the situation. These new methods of birth control had, to some effect, liberated the characters from the burdens of pregnancy. Now as long as his mistresses would remain on the pill, Piet would have no problems keeping his affairs in order. No longer would the characters of Updike’s novel fear the repercussions of sex outside of marriage, hence the ease with which they gradually fall into the abyss of sexual debauchery and adultery. And yet it seems as if this is just the tip of Updike’s metaphorical discussion. More than an indictment of the potentially â€Å"evil† consequences of birth control (such as the encouragement of promiscuity, perhaps), Updike’s inclusion of the pill is less of a reproach and more of a symbolism. It is not the pill per se that drives the characters into the arms of others. It is the slow break-down of society, particularly religion. The pill is merely a tool by which society slowly presents its disintegration. In itself, it cannot be identified as the cause of social decay. Rather, it is a sign of the changing times – a symbol of the struggle of the old traditional values to keep up with the changes in the modern world. In Updike’s own point of view, the concept of the novel is not really adultery. It is a discussion of the disintegration of society through the disintegration of church. Marriage, after all, is a sacrament. The destruction of marriage, therefore, does not signify the end of a union alone. It is a metaphor for the slow destruction of the church and its foundations. Sex is the new religion (Greiner 1984, p. 149). With the church crumbling and religion not as reliable as it once was, the characters of Updike’s Couples seek comfort and solace from another source. Marriage is not enough to provide the human warmth the characters require. They are not villains, just people trapped by circumstances and incapable of escaping from the needs of the flesh. It is a religion in itself, this search for fun. Quoting from the jacket blurb of Couples, Sheed (1968) notes how one character is supposed to be a priest and the other a scapegoat. In some ways, the idea of a spiritual leader leading the empty towards greater hypocrisy and shallowness is apt for the story. Fred Thorne is identified as the priest, the leader who organizes parties and games for the bored couples. His party on the night of Kennedy’s assassination is telling; the couples swear to be solemn yet soon revert to their partying ways. In a sense, this invokes a feeling of emptiness, of floating through space. These characters have nothing else but their physical selves to cling to. The government’s leader is assassinated, God strikes his own church with lightning and society is giving way underground to new bores. In essence, they are free of religious and political encumbrances, only to realize that without these structures there is almost nothing to hold on to at all. In the end, there is nothing but the warmth that sex provides – be it illicit or otherwise – giving a physical reality to the world. Without this physical connection, they are lost. The couples move around, shuffle in their beautiful clothing and beautiful homes. Beyond the facade however, are emptiness and a world of gradual moral decay. Works Cited Amidon, Stephen. â€Å"Unzipped: John Updike’s Prose is as Supple as Ever in This Chronicle of a Lifetime’s Erotic Exploits. † New Statesman, 134. 4724(2005): 51 Austin, Jonathan. â€Å"His Characters Allow Updike to be ‘Free’. † CNN. Com, 16 November 1998. Available 27 April 2008, from http://edition. cnn. com/books/news/9811/16/updike/index. html Greiner, Donald. John Updike’s Novels. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1984 Neary, John. Something and Nothingness: The Fiction of John Updike and John Fowles. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992 Pritchard, William. Updike: America’s Man of Letters. South Royalton, VT: Steerforth Press, 2000 Sheed, Wilfrid. â€Å"Couples. † The New York Times, 7 April 1968. Available 27 April 2008, from http://www. nytimes. com/1968/04/07/books/updike-couples. html? pagewanted=1 Updike, John. Couples. NY: Ballantine Books, 1999

Monday, September 16, 2019

Aesthetic Values and Objects Essay

1.When looking at the differences between cultural, natural, and truly aesthetic objects, it’s relatively easy to define each in their own ways. Cultural objects differ from natural objects in the sense that cultural objects have been placed in an artistic manner by, and for the human population, whereas natural objects are in the most basic term, objects placed by nature for no other external reason. For instance, a bed of rocks laying among a path, strewn out for an artistic affect is considered a cultural object, where bedrock randomly strewn across a certain area, without being altered by a person or persons, is considered a natural object. In other words, a tree, planted and grown naturally is considered a natural aesthetic object. A table, in its own right, will be a cultural object, as it is used for mankind’s benefit, and also used for artistic effect is considered cultural; whereas a wooden sculpture will be considered aesthetic in its nature as a purely artist ic object. What all these objects have in common is the fact that all consists out of wood, and that all can be considered as either natural, cultural, or truly aesthetic objects. 2.Aesthetics is not easily definable when looking at the different values that can be used to describe the object in question. There are two different forms of aesthetic value namely Inherent and Consequential value. If an object has value in, and for itself, it is considered as Inherent value. Pleasure, for instance, has inherent value because please is sought in and for itself. If an object has value because of its consequences, it has consequential value. This involves anything from an action or a still-standing object meant for something. Friendship, for instance, is consequential because we value it because it a means of pleasure, and not necessarily pleasure itself. A popular saying goes: â€Å"to each his own,† and that is exactly the problem it comes down to when attempting to define the aesthetic. As explained in study guide, whatever reason I would consider something to be interesting and beautiful could be used by someone else to define the exact opposite. For instance, I would say that a movie’s vehicle chase scenes were the scenes that made the movie as incredible as it is, but then a friend of mine would mention that it was those exact scenes that made the movie too boring to bare. By merely saying â€Å"beauty is in the eye of the beholder† one has to ask â€Å"what is the definition of beauty†, and it is there where everyone else seem to have different opinions. Marcia Eaton manages to explain this point by giving the following examples: â€Å"What a movie – one car chase after another!† â€Å"I know, I was bored to death.† and â€Å"The lyrics were so romantic!† â€Å"Yes, that’s exactly why they were so sentimental.† We all have different opinions, based somewhat on the different kinds of cultural backgrounds we have, and how we were raised. This is another factor that has to be considered when we are trying to understand one-another’s aesthetic value towards certain objects. 3.Certain conditions have to be met when applying aesthetic value to certain objects. First, one has to consider if the object truly is cultural, or natural. After that has been considered, you have to think of the reason why the object in question appeals to you the way it does. The problem of defining the aesthetic is what concerns us here. Like all definitions this problem is bound with the criteria for the application of defenitions. This means specifying the conditions for when it is justified to apply the concept of â€Å"aesthetic† to any particular object. – [THL801-U/1/2008-2010] A necessary condition is a condition that must be met for the concept to be applied. For example, a necessary condition for something to be a horse is that it is an animal. A sufficient condition is a condition which, if met, alone suffices for the concept to be applied. For example, a sufficient condition for something to be an animal is that it is an animal. Some conditions can either be necessary and sufficient, or sufficient but not necessary, or even necessary but not sufficient. In other words, the definition of a concept is to give its meaning, and to give its meaning tells us what condition the object must meet for the concept to apply to it.

Sunday, September 15, 2019

High Prevalence Of Hiv Health And Social Care Essay

Social Determinants are status whereby economic, societal and wellness position depletes for a group of people who are born, turn, populate, work and age, in their state. The economic system of their state is shaped by the distribution of money, power and resources which influence the wellness position. These people are determiners of wellness who are casualty of wellness unfairnesss. Harmonizing to World Health Organisation an unequal distribution of health-damaging experiences is non in any sense a ‘natural ‘ phenomenon but is the consequence of a toxic combination of hapless societal policies, unjust economic agreements [ where the already well-off and healthy go even richer and the hapless who are already more likely to be sick go even poorer ] , and bad political relations. HIV is one of the universe ‘s taking infective slayers, claiming more than 25 million lives over the past three decennaries. Worldwide, immature adult females aged 15-24 old ages are 1.6 times every bit likely as immature work forces to be HIV positive. Harmonizing to UNAIDS, in Sub Saharan, South Africa, has high prevalence of HIV among immature adult females are estimated to be 3,300,000, which is the universe ‘s highest. Sub Saharan contains some of the universe ‘s poorest and politically unstable parts therefore HIV preponderantly strikes immature grownups, the societal and economic instability roots it ‘s manner toA HIVA epidemic. These societal inequalities are based on historical, cultural and structural factors which impeded the striplings to driving them to wellness jeopardies and striping them from wellness benefits. The conditions which may be affect wellness degrees forcing stripling into catching HIV in Sub Saharan is as follows,MarriageIn assorted part of Sub Saharan, the common pattern of immature miss matrimony is an increasing of import factor in HIV epidemic. Marriage immature misss know less about HIV, are less able negotiate method of protection from HIV than single immature misss. Young misss are married to older hubbies where age difference is broad. Most of the hubby carries the HIV virus because they work as a migratory workers.PovertyUnemployment, underemployment and ensuing to poverty continue to account for high incidence ofA HIV inA Sub Saharan. PovertyA is the norm as rich controls the wealth in Sub Saharan.A Economic endurance overrides the life determinations among the hapless. The ti e between poorness andA HIV has been broad. Due to poverty the get bying capacities of families of a immature married adult female are affected as they are impoverished. To pull off their household, immature adult females histories for hazardous behavioursA inA new societal environments, ensuing for an addition incidence of HIV.A To run into the increasing demands, some of these immature adult females may engageA inA transactional sexual activities either on occasion or as professional commercial sex workers, thereby advancing a barbarous sequenceA inA the spread of HIV. Young Women in Sub Saharan are particularly vulnerable to cultural beliefs and patterns as holding a relationship with adult male where sex is exchanged for stuff goods and protection from an older adult male and the belief that an septic adult male can bring around himself by holding sex with younger adult females.Gender InequalityPatriarchy Dependence of WomenThe impact of immature womenA inA patriarchal societies is relatively high in the spread ofA HIV. Young adult females ‘s limited ability to negociate safe sexA is a major obstruction in commanding the rate of the HIV widespread. Young adult females are 3-4 times more likely to be infected compared to their male opposite numbers. The male-dominant societies continues to determine adult females ‘s sexual behaviourA histories for the high prevalence of HIV in immature adult females. Since bulk of the societies are male-dominant, misss are cultured from really immature ages to play low-level functions. Girls are cultivated by household on a â€Å" hand-down † conditioning of adult females to uphold household honor and image. Therefore immature adult females are matrimony at their immature age. Young Women becomes susceptible to the HIV as a consequence of their limited powerA inA sexual brushs. It was noted that bulk of theA HIV positive adult females were really infected by their partners. Young adult females ‘s dependence on work forces made them vulnerable toA HIV. InA African societies, the production of kids is decided by work forces, immature adult females may be under force per unit area from their partners non merely to reproduce, but to besides accomplish a coveted figure of lasting kids. In Sub Saharan societies, adult females are lack in the power to deny sex to their partners even when they can demo cases of matrimonial infidelityA inA their relationship. An article in UNAIDS cited that it ‘s a believed that in Africa, the partners had a right to crush their married woman. Woman ‘ are obligated to hold sex with her partner on demand even if she was non interested. Even more current surveies continue to tie in confidant spouse force and high degrees of male controlA inA a adult female ‘s relationship withA HIVA seropositivity.Forced sexWomans who are victims of sexual force are at a higher hazard of being exposed to HIV, and the deficiency of rubber usage and forced nature of colza makes immature adult females more vul nerable to HIV infection. Forced sex and attendant scratchs facilitate entry of HIV.AUnemploymentA combination of inundations, drouth, hapless distribution system, failed administration, and increasing poorness to import nutrient has implicated scarceness inA the state. Unemployment rate additions. The HIV contagious disease contributes when adolescent/ immature adult females see nutrient shortage.A HIV resultsA when there ‘s inA less income and less capacity to react unemployment rate. A barbarous rhythm exists among hungriness, poorness andA HIV. When a hubby acquired AIDS, the family load falls on married woman. A immature adult female she needs to pull off household hungriness and malnutrition hence drive them to commercial sex workersOrphaned AdolescentVictims of AIDS orphaned stripling. Most of the universe ‘s AIDS orphaned adolescent resideA inA Sub Saharan. This could perchance resultA in a big figure of dysfunctional grownups. Adolescents are left to care for th eir younger siblingsA inA the absence of their parents. The force per unit area on stripling due to high mortality in the household, deepen poorness. InA the face of increasing demands, these adult females would probably engageA inA sexual activities and advancing the spread ofA HIV.AEducationSocioeconomic position and low literacy are major factors act uponing this result. Young adult females are lack educational chances and experience less concern about the hereafter Low literacy rates tend to halter adult females ‘s cognition about bar plans, .Entree to HealthcareYoung Women more likely to detain prosecuting wellness attention either because symptoms were non considered terrible, had disappeared or for deficiency of money. Even when adult females sought attention, they were more likely than their male opposite numbers to turn to public wellness attention installations where minimum attention is the norm. Therefore adult females are less likely to seek wellness attention inA wellness attention scenes compared to work forces.Cultural BeliefsMost Africans believeA inA the power of traditional therapists to bring around sick people. Reuse of unsterilised acerate leafs and cross taint with patients ‘ organic structure fluids were patterns among African traditional healers.This coupled with usage of one unsterilised instrument on several clientsA inA their patterns is a major factorA inA the spread ofA HIV. Due to moo socioeconomics and ignorance because of small or no instruction and limited resources to follow sterile techniques continue to underlie the patterns of these traditional therapists. With limited resources, immature adult females become most vulnerable to these risky alternate redresss. Plans: In sub-Saharan Africa, experience with young person HIV bar programmes is limited, with grounds sing effectivity still emerging. Recent tests of young person HIV bar intercessions have achieved assorted consequences. Three big community tests of comprehensive attacks to youth HIV bar, affecting schools and other cardinal establishments and stakeholders, have failed to significantly cut down HIV incidence in immature people, and have shown merely modest success in increasing protective behaviors [ 8-10 ] . However, two group-based intercessions in South Africa have shown promise in cut downing reported HIV-related hazard behaviors, and in one instance, associated biological results [ 11-13 ] . Both intercessions addressed HIV-related structural factors, or the societal influences underlying HIV hazard [ 14 ] , viz. gender-based force [ 11-13 ] and adult females ‘s poorness [ 12,13 ] . Together with limited consequences of several smaller, school-based intercessions, these result s have triggered argument about ‘which intercessions work ‘ [ 15 ] . The variable ‘economic activity ‘ categorized striplings into employed, unemployed and attending school. Adolescents who were in employment were considered as economically active, whereas those unemployed were classified as economically inactive, and were compared to striplings go toing school. Plans A surveies in both developed and developing states [ 2,5,7,16-19 ] suggest an of import function for school-based intercessions in increasing immature people ‘s cognition of gender, generative wellness, and HIV bar, with a bulk taking to decreases in reported hazard behaviors [ 5 ] . Reviews of school-based intercessions specific to sub-Saharan Africa have found greater intervention impact on HIV-related cognition procedure of intercession development, including formative research ; 2 ) cultural/linguistic version ; 3 ) usage of social/behavioural theory ; 4 ) how and where the intercession was delivered ( eg. schoolroom, community, after school, excess periods ) ; 5 ) who delivered the intercession ( eg. , peer pedagogues, instructors, trained facilitators ) ; 6 ) choice and support of cardinal messages ; 7 ) engagement of participants and/or broader community ; 8 ) focal point on societal context and hazard environments, every bit good as single hazard behaviors ; and 9 ) focal point on HIV causal tracts of relevancy to South African scene.PreventionPersons can cut down the hazard of HIV infection by restricting exposure to hazard factors. Key attacks for HIV bar include:1. Condom usageCorrect and consistent usage of male and female rubbers during vaginal or anal incursion can protect against the spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Evidence shows that male latex rubbers have an 85 % or greater protective consequence against the sexual transmittal of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) .2. Testing and reding for HIV and STIsTesting for HIV and other STIs is strongly advised for all people exposed to any of the hazard factors so that they can larn of their ain infection position and entree necessary bar and intervention services without hold.3. Pre-exposure prophylaxis ( PrEP ) for HIV-negative spouseTests among serodiscordant twosomes have demonstrated that antiretroviral drugs taken by the HIV-negative spouse can be effectual in forestalling acquisition from the HIV-positive spouse. This is known as pre-exposure prophylaxis ( PrEP ) . WHO is urging that states implement presentation undertakings on PrEP for serodiscordant twosomes and work forces and transgender adult females who have sex with work forces.4. Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV ( PEP )Post-exposure prophylaxis ( PEP ) is the usage of ARV drugs within 72 hours of exposure to HIV in order to forestall infection. PEP is frequently recommended for wellness attention workers following needle stick hurts in the workplace. PEP includes guidance, foremost assistance attention, HIV testing, and depending on hazard degree, administrating of a 28-day class of antiretroviral drugs with follow-up attention.5. Male CircumcisionMale Circumcision when safely provided by well-trained wellness professionals reduces the hazard of heterosexually acquired HIV infection in work forces by about 60 % . This is a cardinal intercession in generalised epidemics with high HIV prevalence and low male Circumcision rates.6. Elimination of mother-to-child transmittal of HIV ( eMTCT )The transmittal of HIV from an HIV-positive female parent to her kid during gestation, labor, bringing or breastfeeding is called perpendicular or mother-to-child transmittal ( MTCT ) . In the absence of any intercessions transmittal rates are between 15-45 % . MTCT can be to the full prevented if both the female parent and the kid are provided with antiretroviral drugs throughout the phases when infection could happen. WHO is presently reexamining the advantages of offering all HIV-positive pregnant adult females ARVs, irrespective of their CD4 count, and maintaining them on it for life.7. ArtA new test has confirmed if an HIV-positive individual adheres to an effectual antiretroviral therapy regimen, the hazard of conveying the virus to their clean sexual spouse can be reduced by 96 % . For twosomes in which one spouse is HIV-positive and the other HIV-negative, WHO recommends ART for the HIV-positive spouse regardless of her/his immune position.8. Harm decrease for shooting drug usersPeoples who inject drugs can take safeguards against going infected with HIV by utilizing unfertile shooting equipment, including acerate leafs and panpipes, for each injection. A comprehensive bundle of HIV bar and intervention, peculiarly opioid permutation therapy for drug users includes drug dependance intervention, HIV proving and reding, HIV intervention and attention, and entree to condoms and direction of STI s, TB and viral hepatitis.WHO responseorphanage with age, wealth quintiles, self-perceived fiscal position, instruction attainment, schooling position, economic activity and topographic point of residency.A Participants identified unemployment/poverty, migratory labour, limited educational chances, limited political will, limited entree to rubbers, the low position of adult females, the slow reaction of the international community and other sociocultural correlatesA in HIV/ AIDS epidemiologyA inA that state. Uganda'sA HIVA infection rate has plummeted from 30 per centum to 5 percentA inA somewhat more than a decennary because of an effectiveA HIV/AIDS educational intercession plan. â€Å" Uganda'sA HIV-fighting mantra is referred to as ABC: Abstain, Be faithful or Use rubber. The authorities launched a monolithic run on wireless, telecasting, andA innewspapers to promote people to acquire tested and to follow the ABC ‘s † ( Wax, 2003 ) . An of import lesson here is that Uganda recognized from the oncoming the socioeconomic conditions among the Ugandan people that fueled the behaviour. The Ugandan leading sought to turn to these conditions before advancing the so called â€Å" A, B, C â€Å" scheme. For illustration, immature people are more likely to abstain from sex if redirected with other socioeconomic inducements such as educational chances. Women ( particularly individual caputs of families ) are likely to be faithful if provided with socioeconomic chances that addres s their basic demands. Equally true is the committedness to utilize rubbers with increased ( free ) entree to them. Similar authorities runs againstA HIV/ AIDSA inA Thailand and Zambia are giving positive consequences. As Fassin and Schneider note, These illustrations present obliging grounds that sustained educational and other socioeconomic inducements ( instead than victim faulting ) are effectual toolsA inA the war againstHIV/ AIDSA in sub-SaharanA Africa. . Many womenA inA the part are less likely to profit from anti -HIV/ AIDS runs channeled through the print media. Men largely ain wirelesss and telecastings. WomenA inrural scenes are worse offA inA this respect ( De Bruyn, 1992 ) . Womans are more likely to detain seeking wellness attention either because symptoms were non considered terrible, had disappeared or for deficiency of money. Even when adult females sought attention, they were more likely than their male opposite numbers to turn to public wellness attention installations where fringy attention is the norm ( Voeten, 2004 ) . Equally more distressing is adult females ‘s susceptibleness to the strong belief systemA inA African societies. Most Africans believeA inA the power of traditional therapists to do people ill or good. This is manifestA inA the high backing ofsub-SaharanA Africans to traditional therapists. A survey of traditional therapists ‘ patterns and the spread of HTV/ AIDSinA southeasterly Nigeria revealed a distressing HTV transmittal hazard among these therapists. Reuse of unsterilised acerate leafs and cross taint with patients ‘ organic structure fluids were patterns among Nigerian traditional therapists of greatest public wellness concern. Sixty per centum of Nigerians patronize traditional therapists ( Peters, 2004 ) . The power of suggestion by traditional therapists to their frequenters frequently delays prompt appropriate medical intercession. This coupled with usage of one unsterilised instrument on several clientsA inA their patterns is a major factorA inA the spre ad ofA HIV/ AIDSA in sub-SaharanA Africa. Although these patterns fall within the behavioural sphere, they are predicated on low socioeconomics. Ignorance because of small or no instruction and limited resources to follow sterile techniques continue to underlie the patterns of these traditional therapists. With limited resources, adult females become most vulnerable to these risky alternate redresss. The above are yet extra illustrations of hazardous behaviours rooted inA socioeconomics. that faced with the inexorable statistics about high morbidity and mortality rates of their female couples ( from AIDS ) A inA the part and the deduction for quality of life of both genders, African males will see the demand to embarkA inA some behavior change.A InA the same vena, other traditional patterns such as female venereal mutilations, forced matrimonies, early gestations, and multiparity which compromise the quality of life for adult females and immature girlsA inA the part must be addressed. Of the several factors implicatedA inA the unequal prevalence of the disease among womenA inA Africa, economic dependency/feminization of poorness, unequal distribution of sexual power ( sexual force and coercion ) , limited educational chances and deficiency of political will, The relationship between patriarchate and economic power must be evaluatedA inA order to understand adult females ‘s increased sensitivity toA HIV/ AIDSA in sub-SaharanA Africa. InA those states where there is political will and sustained leading at the highest degree, the result has been an increaseA inA consciousness and sensitiveness to the predicament of the afflicted finally accounting for a important declineA inA the incidence of the disease.

Advances in Operating Systems

Operating systems have undergone a series of evolutions since the early nineteen fifties when they first appeared in the market. By this time they were crude and they performed limited duties with great difficult. They also consumed time and were extremely annoying.When it struck the year 2000, computer operating systems finished half a century in existence. The efficient systems that entered the scene in the nineteen nineties are a successor to the batch processing systems of the early nineteen fifties.Just like the operating systems have undergone much evolution since they were first invented, the definition has also had to change from time to time so as to fit the moment. The nineteen sixties had the world defining operating systems as the software that was responsible for the direction or control of the hardware.The emergence of microcode has shifted the definition and nowadays operating systems are defined as the software whose duty is to make the hardware possible to use. Opera ting systems comprises a set of programs that basically control the computer. Abbreviated as OS or O/S, operating systems form the software component of a computer that handles the coordination and management of computer resources.It also controls the sharing of the computer resources by acting as a host of the applications that are carried out or done in the computer. It is true that no computer functions in the current world of computers without making use of an operating system.This applies to handheld computers, desk top computers, video game consoles and super computers. The batch processors mentioned above that were the forerunners of current operating systems were produced by a couple of companies such as UNIVAC and Control Data Corporation.Components of an operating systemOperating systems are composed of different areas such as kernel services, library services and application level services. Kernel services are charged with the responsibility of providing a path to the per ipheral components or devices.Usually, the kernel answers the device interrupts and responds to service requests from the processes taking place. I t is the core of the operating system and functions in a privileged manner that supports the execution of orders from the hardware. Library services in the operating system deals with the storage of no-processed and processed data. This is retrievable for use in future in case it is required for reference or processing.The other component of the operating system is the application services part or component whose function is primarily to coordinate the running of the application area of the system.The historical progression or advancement of operating systemsSince the period of the batch systems, so much has happened in the world of computer operating systems. The most productive period in computer operating systems evolution took place in the sixties and seventies. This is the time when much of the now famous and widely used and highly effective computer operating systems were invented.The earliest operating systems or the so called classic operating systems came out in distinct times. These times can be broken down to a number of phases. The first phase is the open shop which saw the introduction of the IBM 701 open shop. The period in which this came out was the year nineteen fifty four.The batch processing period gave us the batch processing phase that went a head to bring forth the well known BKS system. This was the year nineteen sixty one. The batch processing phase was followed by the multiprogramming phase .This phase was responsible for the production or invention of up to four serious operating systems. These systems were the atlas supervisor in nineteen sixty one, the B5000 system in nineteen sixty four, the exec II system in nineteen sixty six and the egdon system that came out in the year nineteen sixty six as well.The fourth phase in this line of classic operating systems was the timesharing phase. T his phase saw the emergence of operating systems such as CTSS that came out in nineteen sixty two, the multics file system that came out in the year nineteen sixty five, and the titan file system that was produced in nineteen seventy two.The UNIX operating system that came out in nineteen seventy two also falls into the timesharing category.Still on the idea of operating system production and functional phases, the timesharing phase pushes us on to the concurrent programming phase. At this angle, a number of operating systems are recognized.These include the solo program text of nineteen seventy six, the solo system of nineteen seventy six, the THE system that came out in nineteen sixty eight, the Venus system that came out in nineteen seventy two, the RC 4000 that was invented in the year nineteen sixty nine and the boss 2 system that was produced in the year nineteen seventy five.The concurrent programming phase is closely followed by the personal computing phase .In this particul ar phase, operating systems that are still highly respected in the world of computing such as the star user interface produced in nineteen eighty two, the operating system produced in nineteen seventy two simply referred to as the OS, the alto system of nineteen seventy nine and the pilot system of nineteen eighty are highly considered.Then there is the last phase which is the phase of distributed systems. The distributed systems that are found in this phase include the highly admired and valued Unix United System that came out in nineteen eighty two, the amoeba system of nineteen eighty, and the Unix United RPC system that appeared in the world of computing in the year nineteen eighty two.There is also the WFS file server system that was produced in the year nineteen seventy nine.In the world of evolution of operating systems, there are strong principles that always dictate the nature and operational capability of an operating system. These basic ideas or principles are the ones th at always lead to the rise or invention of the technical benchmarks that led to the design of the operating systems in question.The history of computer operating system evolution is littered with these basic ideas that gave rise or formed the ground for the formulation of the operating systems we now know and use. These basic ideas or core ideas of operating systems developed through phases as well just like the operating systems themselves.These phases include the open shop, the batch processing phase, the multiprogramming phase, the timesharing phase, the concurrent programming phase, the personal computing phase, and the distributed systems phase.The technical ideas that emerged during these phases include the remote servers that came out in the phase of the distributed computer operating systems, the simultaneous user interaction and the online file systems that came out during the phase of timesharing, and the graphic user interfaces that came out in the group of personal compu ter operating systems emergence.The parallel programming concepts, the extensive kernels, the secure parallel languages and the hierarchical systems as technical ideas also came out during the phase of concurrent programming.Added to these, are idea of operating systems itself that came out in the phase of open systems, the technical element of tape batching and first in and first out scheduling that emerged at the time of batch processing, the technical ideas of demand paging, priority scheduling, remote job entry, input –output spooling, processor multiplexing and indivisible operations that arose at the hot period of multiprogramming (Aho, 1984).Moving from the period of technical ideas innovation or invention, the history of operating systems also covers the mode or way of operation that was normally used in the process of trying to get work done using the poorly designed operating systems.At the time of the IBM open shop, life with the computers of the time was terribly hard and a long time was spent trying to achieve some simple targets. Workers would sit before computers waiting for their data to be processed to whatever they wanted. The problems posed by the computers of the time made the users work hard to come up with more efficient machines.The batch processing systems mentioned elsewhere in this research paper came as a serious leap forward in the evolution of operating system. Here, the idea of computers handling the amount of work to process came up and the laziness and slow nature of human beings was eliminated.Magnetic tape was input with punched cards and the jobs to be done were run in order of appearance through the computers .Satellite computers printed the output in a line printer and produced the next input.Despite the effectiveness that came with the batch processing system, there was the limitation of feeding the magnetic tape, the speed of output and the delay due to the sequential nature of the magnetic tapes. It would actually take several hours, a day or two before one would get the output for their work.This system of batch processing was followed by the BKS system that was very easy to read even by people who were not so much into computer work and obviously had the same problem of delaying just like the batch processing.